LC 

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F5 



THE 

PHILOSOPHY OF 
THE HUMANITIES 



FITZ-HUGH 




Class _LG_LDlU_ 

Book.. .F 5 

Copyright^ 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



THE 



PHILOSOPHY OF 
THE HUMANITIES 



THOMAS FITZ-HUGH 

PROFESSOR OF LATIN IN 
THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS 






CHICAGO 

Ube Tantversitg of dbica^o press 

1897 



FEB a xm 



P TWO COPIES RECEIVED 

2nd COPY, U*V\ ^ 



1898. 






i'283 



COPYRIGHT 1898 BY 
THOMAS F1TZ-HUGH 



THE 



EVOLUTION OF CLASSIC CULTURE 
AND ITS PEDAGOGIC TREATMENT 



AN INQUIRY INTO THE PHILO- 
SOPHIC BASIS OF THE HUMANITIES 



THIS LITTLE BOOK IS DEDICATED TO 
THE CAUSE OF HUMANISTIC STUDIES 
AND TO THEIR PHILOSOPHIC ORGAN- 
IZATION IN THE LONE STAR STATE 



CONTENTS. 



The Evolution of Culture. 



ii. 



The Pedagogic Aspect of Culture-Evolution: Organ- 
ization of the Latin Humanities in the College. 29 



III. 



Organization of the Latin Humanities in Secondary 

Education. -------- 55 



PREFACE. 



The three addresses contained in this volume were pre- 
pared on separate occasions and for totally different bodies : 
hence some little repetition and the air of individual isolation 
which characterizes them. They are reproduced here without 
alteration. 



THE EVOLUTION OF CULTURE 



I. 

THE EVOLUTION OF CULTURE. 



Delivered before the Texas Academy of Science in December of 1896. 

The normal evolution of Aryan culture presents to reflection 
five successive stages — the hunting and fishing, the nomadic or 
pastoral, the agricultural or political, which is the historical 
stage par excellence, the artistic or creative, and the philosophic 
or reflective stage. Our knowledge of the hunting and fishing 
and of the nomadic or pastoral period is derived from the fos- 
silized objects of prehistoric archaeology and the fossilized 
words and thoughts of comparative philology and comparative 
mythology, and confirmed by ordinary reason and by the obser- 
vation of primitive types of contemporary civilization. But 
with these aids we have reached the Ultima Thule of pure histor- 
ical insight : the sciences of man can carry us no farther back 
than the period of hunting and fishing. Primeval man and his 
relation to nature and through nature to God are questions left 
to natural science and religion. And yet, constituted as the 
cultured spirit under the law of spiritual survival has come to 
be, these questions as to the meaning for man of nature and 
God are the chief interests of humanity, and hence from our 
culture-historical standpoint we are justified in viewing science 
and religion as the mainstays of our hope for the future. 

To the first two of our culture-historical stages, therefore, 
the era of hunting and fishing, and the era of nomadic life, only 
the practical interest of the specialist or the ideal interest of the 
philosopher attaches. But with the last three, the social-politi- 
cal, the artistic, and the scientific era, cultured humanity identi- 
fies the supreme practical and ideal interests of the individual 
and the race. The social foundation with its organizing factors, 
religion and law, art with its creations of glad beauty, science 
with its system of ever-widening truth, constitute the basal inter - 

9 



io THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMANITIES 

ests of the cultured spirit, for they embody the whole content 
of man's spiritual evolution, and they present the successive 
phases of that content in their historical and organic relation ; 
they constitute, therefore, the true humanities, the story of the 
unfolding of individual as well as racial culture. 

Let us inquire now more closely into that unfolding: we 
shall find one supreme factor that is all-pervasive in civilization, 
and we shall determine the order and process of its operation 
in the evolution of culture. 

If we seek the ultimate answer to the question what seems 
to be the determining impulse in that evolution, it is found in 
the human will. The most momentous and epoch-making fact 
in modern philosophy is the union of history and biology, of the 
sciences, par excellence, of man and nature, on the common 
ground of a volitional psychology and a volitional metaphysics : 
the ultimate inner reality of man and nature, so far as it seems 
empirically presented to thought, is of a kind with the thing we 
call will, — it is will, will to survive, that is at the bottom of bio- 
logical as of historical evolution. If we seek, on the other hand, 
the particular culture-historical factor that exerts over all other 
stimuli of the human will the determining influence in civiliza- 
tion, it is found in religion, or whatever in any particular case 
takes its place as embodying the highest ideal of the will. For 
I use the term religion in its true Latin meaning, as that influ- 
ence which binds the strong springs of will by the power of the 
supreme ideal which it holds before the imagination ; the power 
of every religion is the power of its ideal, for that is what incites 
the will. 

Now it is not every religion that is a simple religion of the 
divine or supernatural : when the ideal changes from the elemen- 
tary form of a vague transcendental sanction to, let us say, the 
beautiful as in Greece, or the political as in Rome, the empirical 
power of these religions in the evolution of culture lies in the 
new and not the old ideals ; in the case of Greece, for example, 
we might speak of a religion of beauty, in the case of Rome, of 
a religion of patriotism. The original common mark of all 



THE EVOLUTION OF CULTURE 1 1 

religion, however, is the element of the ultimate-ideal, or tran- 
scendental, and it is this element which the national will invari- 
ably appropriates when the particular content of the old religion 
has faded before the vital interests of the new ideal. The shell 
of the transcendental sanction accommodates continually a chang- 
ing content which each successive era naively reads into the tra- 
ditional religion. Thus religion, embodying everywhere the 
supreme ideal of the individual and the collective will, becomes 
inevitably the mainspring of the highest spiritual activity, which 
is culture itself : it will urge men to lay the social-political sub- 
structure in harmony with that ideal, it will inspire artistic genius 
to glorify its worth in song and shrine and statue, it will stimu- 
late and exercise the imagination and suggest the first bold sal- 
lies of discursive thought. 

If the religious ideal is thus regnant in the evolution of cul- 
ture, we shall not be surprised to find it fixing the character and 
standard of culture-attainment. The achievements of an individ- 
ual civilization, as the Greek or the Roman, or of a cycle of cul- 
ture like the Atlantic, can therefore nowhere transcend the level of 
the religious ideal : the arrow does not rise above the line of aim, 
nor has the individual or the collective will ever wrought higher 
than its ideal. The achievements of culture are threefold : social, 
artistic, and scientific. A nation the essence of whose religion 
is the ideal of state, or patriotism, like the Roman's, will achieve 
its best culture-historical results in the sphere of that ideal, or 
the social political sphere. A people the ideal of whose religion 
is the beautiful, like the Greek's, will realize in the sphere'of art 
its highest achievements. A culture-historical cycle like that of 
Atlantic civilization, whose religious ideal is spiritual perfection, 
will excel in all the fruits of spirit, but preeminently in the pur- 
est, which is truth or science. 

If we come now to consider more narrowly the nature and 
origin of this astonishing transcendental element in historical 
survival, the religious ideal, we are brought face to face with the 
most vital distinction involved in all inquiry into the unknown, 
the distinction between the empirical reason and the transcenden- 



1 2 THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMANITIES 

tal reason ; between the how and the what or why of things. As 
we have not attempted to answer the transcendental question why- 
life is, neither have we sought to explain why religion, with its 
suggestions of the' beyond, of the supernatural, of the transcen- 
dental, should appear everywhere in history to lie so near the 
springs of human motive and so arouse the hearts of men to toil 
by deed and thought towards the attainment of those ideals which, 
under their respective environments, have approved themselves 
in the battle of life as making for spiritual survival and highest 
efficiency, and which tend everywhere in the history of human 
life to become invested with the transcendental sanction of 
religion. We have only sought to find how the religious ideal 
operates in the evolution of culture, and we have found the 
empirical reason in the motive power of the ideal upon the will. 
Our laws of nature and history do not explain the causes, but 
only the process of phenomena. Newton's principle of uni- 
versal attraction does not explain why the cosmic system so 
moves, but only how it moves. Physics makes no claim to 
solving the problem why energy is and acts, but only how it acts. 
Biology does not concern itself with the question, why life is, 
but only how the phenomena of life succeed each other. Scien- 
tific thought restricts its responses within the limits of real or 
possible experience ; it would contradict its nature to dogmatize 
about the metempirical. Whence, then, comes the answer to 
the transcendental question, which is the characteristic and dis- 
tinguishing mark of the human spirit, the answer to which makes 
up the dynamic content of religion and determines its vital 
power for good or evil in culture ? In metempirical matters it 
is the function of the intellect |to answer how, of the will to 
answer why. Reason knows how the thing is, the will decrees 
why it is. Science furnishes the empirical cause, religion the 
transcendental. All that reason accepts beyond the limits of 
real or possible experience is inevitably a mere decree of the 
will, a choice of the heart ; and that decree, that choice, rises 
spontaneously out of the total experience of life like odor from 
a rose. Reason may point and suggest, but the heart must 



THE EVOLUTION OF CULTURE 13 

decree and confirm. It was the heart of Anaxagoras that, 
thrilling with the beauty and order of the world, leapt beyond the 
data of science and found the transcendental answer in a world- 
ordering Mind. It was the heart of Lucretius that, stricken with 
the sorrows of men and the hideousness of their superstitions, 

" Dropped his plummet down the broad, 
Deep universe, and said, ' No God.' " 

It is the heart of cultured humanity that, following the evo- 
lution of culture through the ages until now, rises above the 
empirical and finds the sanction for the power of the ideal and 
the transcendental upon the human will in an Infinite Will, "in 
whom we live and move and have our being." It is the heart 
of the materialist that, withered by the cold indifference of 
nature's mechanism, declines to transgress the limits of possible 
experience and finds the mechanical reason in Nature. Out of 
the heart are the issues of life. 

Of critical moment in the evolution of culture is this answer 
of the heart to the what and why of things, for it involves the 
nature of the supreme ideal and the worth of religion. Even 
if the religion of matter were as mysterious and transcendental 
as the religion of spirit, there could not be serious dispute as to 
their relative motive force in the concerns of culture. The mys- 
tery of the one is clothed with sacredness and worth, the mystery 
of the other is wrapped in the ice of indifference. The very 
essence of the religion of spirit is the life of the ideal impulse, 
the very essence of the religion of matter is indifference to that 
ideal. History strongly suggests the inference that a moribund 
religion implies a moribund civilization ; the canker that destroyed 
the civilizations of Greece and Rome was in the heart of religion. 
It is but culture-historical justice that the world's best poetry 
and philosophy has reprobated the materialistic answer to the 
transcendental question as being unworthy of our race ; cf. also 
Wundt, System der Philosphie, pages 3-4. The flowers of spirit 
wither and die with the vine that gave them life. It is, there- 
fore, a profound instinct of spiritual selection which leads society 



14 THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMANITIES 

to shudder at the touch of atheism, as the quick shudders at 
touch of the dead. Out of the spiritual ideal are the issues of 
culture. 

It is clear, therefore, that the transcendental sanction which 
religion gives is the important and determining thing for cul- 
ture, and that it is not religion's function to give any other. 
And yet, in the nature of the case, every historical religion has 
more or less of the empirical blended with its structure. This 
unavoidable and necessary union of the historical with the super- 
natural has been the disturbing element in that structure, because 
of the tendency of the transcendental to invest the historical 
and empirical with its own sacredness and inviolability. But is 
not the ideal sanction the characteristic factor that concerns the 
evolution of culture and determines the worth of religion for 
humanity ? And must not the historical tradition, which is 
wholly empirical, be subject to the test of historical criticism in 
order that the precious ideal be saved from the polluting union 
with a lie ? Since religion is a blending of the empirical and 
the transcendental, let heart and head do each its perfect work, 
aiding but not dogmatizing to each other, and all heresy and 
schism and hate of humanity's best friend will cease. What right 
has the heart to dogmatize to the intellect about historical facts ? 
What right has the intellect to dogmatize to the heart about the 
love that moves them both to work their noblest works ? Surely, 
the health of religion lies in the full, free development of its 
rational and ideal elements in harmonious and spontaneous, not 
in hostile and forcible reaction. The degree of this harmony 
will ever be the measure of the power of religion in culture- 
progress. 

Having thus established the supreme importance of the 
religious ideal in the evolution of culture, we come now to 
consider the order and process of that evolution. When man 
has outlived the naturalistic stages of the hunting and fish- 
ing, and the nomadic life, and enters upon the proper task of 
culture, the problems that arise are the practical problems of 
adaptation to his geographical and spiritual environment, the 



THE EVOLUTION OF CULTURE 15 

conquest of the soil and the organization of private and public 
life. The first stage of culture-historical life is, therefore, the 
social-political, on which, as a practical basis, the subsequent 
evolution goes forward. When economic advance has been suffi- 
cient to afford leisure and means for ideal pursuits, the human 
spirit begins at once to unfold itself in art, and the second stage 
in the history of culture, the era of the beautiful, is inaugurated. 
At length, when the typical forms of economic and artistic activ- 
ity have been achieved, the spirit of inquiry springs into new and 
sudden life, and the pure quest of truth begins, the final era in 
the unfolding of culture. Thus the order of all culture-evolu- 
tion is economic, artistic, scientific, as suggested in my opening 
sentence. And this, too, must needs be the order of individual 
evolution, since culture is the work of individuals. 

Furthermore, the characteristic activity of each stage does 
not cease with the inauguration of the subsequent stage, but 
continues for all time, achieving continually higher culture- 
historical results. Economic activity does not, of course, cease 
when artistic activity begins, and both of them flourish in the 
pure air of science. Hence the order of perfecting may even 
vary from the order of beginning : what our law affirms is the 
invariability of the order of first unfolding. Agamemnon, king 
of men, must live and work in order that Homer, the sweet 
singer, may "touch our eyelids with tears," and a Homer must 
stir the infinite depths of spirit before Thales of Miletus can 
inquire into the mystery of the universe. A Numa must inau- 
gurate his policies before Ennius can have leisure to sing, and 
Ennius, the poet, must precede Lucretius, the philosopher. 
Even in the chaotic beginnings of modern culture, a Charle- 
magne or a Friedrich Barbarossa will arise before a Dante, and 
a Dante before a Descartes. 

Our next inquiry which concerns the reason for this seeming 
fixity in the order of the phenomena of higher culture presents 
no difficulty for our first evolutionary stage, since we recognize 
in the agricultural, social, and political activities of that stage 
the necessary basis of civilization. Reason does not question 



1 6 THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMANITIES 

why the practical era of society-building normally precedes all 
other manifestations of culture. But when we ask why the crea- 
tion of the beautiful in art is characteristic of the second stage 
of spiritual evolution and the quest of truth in science of the 
third, the answer does not at once suggest itself, although the 
fact of this sequence seems apparent not only in the history of 
higher culture, but in the more rudimentary phenomena of child- 
development and in the trend of aboriginal and savage types of 
civilization. The psychological reason seems to lie in the dif- 
ference for the human spirit between the concrete and the 
abstract. When we observe that the whole process of human 
evolution presents itself to us both in history and biology as an 
unfolding from nature into spirit, from the sensuous into the 
rational, we are prepared to find the concrete ideal activity in 
art manifesting itself as a necessary preparatory stage to the 
abstract ideal activity in science. The era of art is the midway 
stage in the passage of the human spirit from concrete activity 
to abstract activity ; it exhibits the concrete element of the 
sensuous and the abstract element of the ideal. The harmoni- 
ous union of the two, of the concrete and the abstract, of nature 
and thought, is what we mean by art. The scientific era elimi- 
nates the sensuous as an integral constructive element in its 
characteristic activities, and thus implies a higher stage of 
thought evolution. Hence a people whose impelling interest is 
concrete, like the Romans, does not rise to the higher spiritual 
activity of the artistic stage, and still less to the non-sensuous 
standpoint of the scientific era, and a people whose impelling 
interest is the beautiful, like the Greeks, while achieving the 
results of the economic stage cannot realize, though they may 
approximate, the genuine results of the scientific, for their 
science will be inevitably contaminated with the imaginative and 
the aesthetic; cf, also Zeller, Pre-Socratic Philosophy, I, 154 ff. 

Let us now observe more in detail the operation of this 
psychological law, in accordance with which human culture 
manifests itself as a progress from concrete-activity through art- 
activity into scientific-activity. The characteristic problems of 



THE EVOLUTION OF CULTURE 17 

the economic stage of culture are concrete problems clamoring 
for solution in order to the satisfaction of social and political 
wants. The power of disinterested abstract thought is not 
involved, since thought is here always stimulated by practical 
interest, but at the same time the foundation is being laid for 
the next higher function of spirit in art-creation where thought 
while cleaving to the sensuous has nevertheless emancipated 
itself from the fetters of self-interest. 

When the necessary conditions of social life have been ful- 
filled and a period of leisure and affluence ensues, the first 
advance of culture must needs be, as we have seen, into the 
artistic stage, whose products, moreover, by their sensuous 
beauty appeal more immediately to the fresh, youthful feelings 
of those who have emerged triumphantly from the difficulties of 
the economic era, and whose first higher spiritual impulse is to 
realize in art the ideals that have inspired them. The height- 
ened vigor which accrues to the imagination in the first flush 
of the artistic life of a people redounds on the one hand to the 
economic interest, inasmuch as it renders finer achievements 
possible in the further development and expansion of the social- 
political fabric, and on the other to the scientific interest, inas- 
much as the exercise of the sensuous imagination is the imme- 
diate and necessary preparation for the activity of the rational 
or abstract imagination, which is the essence of that spiritual 
activity we call scientific ; vid. Zeller, Pre-Socratie Philosophy •, I, 
54. The moment imagination becomes sufficiently strong to 
subject its own content to critical analysis, the phenomenon of 
intellectual doubt arises, which is the necessary starting-point of 
scientific thought. The scientific or reflective era dawns when 
the intellectual presentation begins to supplement the moral 
or volitional presentation in the systematic interpretation of 
things; cf. also Wundt, System, der Philosophic, p. 3. 

Having discussed the fundamental laws regulating the evo- 
lution of culture, let us now trace more explicitly its empirical 
process. When we cast our glance backward to the farthest 
limits of historical tradition, two factors present themselves as 



1 8 THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMANITIES 

of prime significance in the life and progress of civilization, the 
one an outer, the other an inner influence. These factors are 
geography and religion, the one involving the physical, the 
other the spiritual, environment of the community. The geo- 
graphical factor furnishes the physical basis of the individual and 
collective life, and in so doing exerts a powerful reflex influence 
upon the spiritual trend of that life. When we come to inquire 
into the fundamental traits of the social organism, both on its 
domestic and on its political side, we are at once brought face 
to face with the radical influence of the religious ideal. It 
appears first as the source of all reverence for the institution of 
the family, and finally as the guarantee of the sacredness of the 
state. A factor that thus enters with determining power into 
the foundations of the social order must needs ramify the whole 
practical life and history of the race : it is preeminently the key 
to that life and history ; cf. also Hegel, Philosophy of History, p. 53. 
To sum up our results for the first historical period of culture — 
the agricultural-political or the historical period proper — geog- 
raphy and religion are the fundamental factors, the one deter- 
mining the physical basis of society, the other evolving from 
itself all the sanctities of private and public life, of the family 
and the state, as we find them set forth in the private and public 
antiquities of every historical people. 

The stage of state-building through the establishing of cus- 
toms unwritten and written is fairly inaugurated and the second 
era of culture dawns in the lives of some individuals ; I say, of 
some individuals, because the advance from one stage of culture 
to another is in the last analysis a fact of the individual experi- 
ence, and will occur sooner or later with the various members of 
the social order as the life of the individual has been richer or 
poorer in the highest experiences of the race. It is the period 
of the love of the beautiful and of the creation of its noblest 
manifestations ; a period of spiritual freedom, which follows upon 
the organization of the state and the supplying of the immediate 
demands of the social order, and which implies, therefore, in 
certain individuals in the community a condition of leisure and 



THE EVOLUTION OF CULTURE 19 

independence of fortune. Here, too, when we inquire into the 
historical beginnings of the various spheres of art, the same 
Ariadne thread of the religious ideal unites the maze of culture's 
pathway. As handmaidens of religion, the two highest arts, 
poetry and song, hand in hand usher in the glad morning of the 
beautiful. And when religion has uttered her ideals in poetry 
and song, she strikes another chord in the diapason of beauty — 
the temple rises on some heaven-kissing hill as a worthy house 
for deity : the majestic beauty of architecture is born. Then sculp- 
ture seeks to realize man's thoughts of God and bodies forth the 
marble form of deity, and painting touches shrine and statue 
with the charm of color. Thus art everywhere enters history as 
the fair vestal at religion's altar. 

The economic and creative eras have unfolded their charac- 
teristic products, and the spirit of man is ripe for the era of 
science, which appears in the evolution of culture as rising on the 
basis of the political and artistic stages and as having its roots 
like them in the soil of religion. The activity of the scientific 
era has as its necessary starting-point the data of the religious 
imagination, which therefore determines the direction and 
powerfully influences the results of the earliest scientific 
inquiry. The religious presentation is the source of the first 
scientific presentation, for the religious consciousness involves 
the notion of a power behind the phenomenal world, and so 
suggests to reason the reign of law ; cf. Zeller, Pre-Socratic 
Philosophy, I, 51 f. Thus science becomes aware of her whole 
problem — to find the law in things. Morever, the nature of the 
religious presentation is found to determine the nature of the 
suggestion to reason. A religion of nature and beauty like the 
Greek's will suggest a naturalistic philosophy constructed on 
aesthetic rather than scientific principles ; a religion of utility 
like the Roman's, a utilitarian philosophy, which is all ethics ; 
a religion of spirit, a philosophy of spirit, as in Christendom. 
And, finally, just as the artistic era opens with the most spiritual 
form of art — poetry and song — as the most perfect expression 
of its impelling ideals, so the era of science is ushered in by the 



20 THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMANITIES 

queen of sciences, philosophy, out of whose broad lap the sep- 
arate sciences gradually unfold themselves, leaving to the mother 
the queenly task of maintaining the unity and concord of the 
household, and of finding a supreme truth that shall harmonize 
the ideals of religion with the data of science. 

Surveying now the course of culture-evolution as empirically 
presented in the history of our race, it is impossible to ignore the 
operation and development of what may be termed the tran- 
scendental sanction as a vital and characteristic element in the 
process of spiritual selection and survival. We can no more 
ignore the determining power of this element in the struggle and 
rivalry of spiritual evolution than we can any other principle of 
organic or social adaption in lower stages of evolution. At 
every stage of culture-evolution we find this metempirical sanc- 
tion attaching itself with greater or less precision to every 
element of culture that seems to make for spiritual survival and 
efficiency, and converting such element into an ideal of tremen- 
dous power. 

With the birth of science the relation of the transcendental 
sanction which religion exploits in the evolution of culture is 
naturally at first disturbed. There are two ultimate cravings of 
the human spirit. The dominant one is to find worth in things, 
the secondary to find truth in things. Religion is the product 
of the longings of the heart, science of the longings of the intel- 
lect. But until the rise of science religion had to discharge the 
twofold function of satisfying heart and head, and only after a 
struggle, the din of whose Armageddon still echoes along the 
paths of culture, has she renounced this twofold relation, leaving 
to science the theoretic, and restricting herself to the practical, 
function in civilization. But her supremacy still asserts itself in 
unmistakable character in the demand which culture makes of 
science in the person of philosophy that religion and science be 
harmonized in a contradictionless unity. 

In conclusion, I wish to emphasize an empirical law of 
supreme practical importance in culture, and I can devise no 
more satisfactory term for it than the law of habit. I mean by 



THE EVOLUTION OF CULTURE 21 

the law of habit a tendency to organization as against disorgan- 
ization, to cosmos as against chaos, under the higher law of life, 
progress by spiritual selection and survival. The question I now 
propose is again the how, the law, not the why, the cause, of 
this tendency in the spiritual world. 

The subject of culture-historical inquiry is the spirit of man. 
By spirit I mean always the whole willing, feeling, and thinking 
being. Culture is the work of that spirit under the impulse of 
stimuli of the will. These stimuli of the will are what we mean 
by ideals. What the human spirit most wants or wills becomes 
by definition the ideal of the will. Now just here our empirical 
question arises : how does the individual and the community 
come to want or will any particular ideal of culture ? We answer 
at once, through the sum total of experience, hereditary and 
personal, physical and spiritual. But how does experience go 
about creating these wants, these longings, these ideals of the 
will ? I find only one answer : by the most vital empirical law 
in the world of life, by the law of habit, which I have tried to 
define more exactly as a tendency to organization as against 
disorganization, to cosmos as against chaos. What gravity is in 
the so-called inanimate cosmos, habit is in the animate world. 
Just as the nebular tends to cosmic organization by the way of 
gravity, so the animate tends to biologic organization by the way 
of habit. I repeat, I raise no transcendental issue. The ques- 
tion, what is the reason for the biological law of habit is tanta- 
mount to the question, what is the reason for the physical law 
of gravity ? The question why nebular matter develops a ten- 
dency to organization or cosmos is tantamount to the question 
why the human spirit develops a tendency to culture. Science 
has never yet successfully answered these questions. Their 
answer has thus far been ever a fiat of the human, will, a revela- 
tion of the human heart. I mean only to emphasize the empir- 
ical fact that the universe of matter and mind does actually 
develop this tendency to beauty, on the one hand by the way of 
gravity, on the other by the way of habit. Gravitation, then, in 
matter and habitual experience, or habit through experience, in 



2 2 THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMANITIES 

life are God's modes of astronomic and biological evolution. 
Gravitation develops astronomical cosmos, and habit biological 
cosmos. Gravity is the law of astronomical organization, and 
habit the law of biological organization. 

The sum-total of our experience, then, under the law of habit, 
or tendency to organization, conditions all our concrete willing 
and feeling and thinking; in other words, all spiritual activity 
and hence all culture is the result of this tendency of spirit under 
the law of progress, which seems to hold in history as in biology, 
to convert disorganization into organization, chaos into cosmos, 
by the way of habit. The power of experience expresses itself 
in its tendency to habituate. Experience, become habitual, 
tends more and more to become a law. Habitual experience of 
climate becomes a climatic need. Habitual experience of social 
and political conditions converts those conditions into laws of 
life for individual and community. Habitual experience of the 
beautiful makes art a second nature. Habitual experience of 
science becomes a permanent motive of intellectual activity. 

The permanence of culture, then, in obedience to the law of 
habit, depends upon habitual experience of its ideals. So long 
as those ideals are becoming spiritual habits through systematic 
cultivation at the hands of the individual, the family, and the 
community, so long will the true, beautiful, and good be ruling 
impulses in life. When that sacred cult falls into partial or total 
desuetude, culture by the divinely imposed law of habit is par- 
tially or wholly dead. What a responsibility then is ours, who, as 
truth-seekers, are protagonists in the vanguard of civilization ! 
If noble, social ideals are to rule, must we not toil to habituate 
our fellowmen, and especially the young, to the experience of 
them ? If a government worthy of spiritual freemen is to sur- 
vive, must not its vital interests and aims be made familiar and 
habitual to our children and our neighbors ? If the joy of art 
is to live, must we not, by habitual contact, drink in its pure 
inspiration ? If the truth of science is to wax, must we not 
make it the habitual goal of our thinking ? 

My theory of culture-evolution is completely, though of 



THE EVOLUTION OF CULTURE 23 

necessity briefly, stated. I desire to append to it two philo- 
sophic inferences which it seems to involve. The first concerns 
the empirical biologic basis of science, the second the metempir- 
ical basis of religion. The evolution of culture stands, of course, 
in immediate connection with universal evolution. Culture-evo- 
lution, viewed empirically, is merely the third step in universal 
evolution. Science recognizes, first, an astronomic evolution, 
next, a biologic evolution, and lastly, a culture evolution. Cul- 
ture evolution is simply the crown of the biological process ; 
the highest form of life is the cultured spirit. The empirical 
fact that unites all forms of biological evolution is the fact of a 
tendency to organization, a conception arising in the biological 
sphere, and applied figuratively or interpretatively to the astro- 
nomical process. I say figuratively or interpretatively, for sci- 
ence cannot, without an assumption, speak of a tendency to organ- 
ization as an empirical fact, except for the world of life, because 
consciousness alone can cognize that fact of itself ; conscious 
life cognizes its own tendency to organization as an empirical 
fact. Science can go no farther than to posit this tendency as 
probably inherent likewise in all extra-conscious phenomena of 
life, being compelled, even here, to ignore the factor of conscious- 
ness, although it is in conscious life alone that we have imme- 
diate experience of the tendency. 

Apart, therefore, from the problem of astronomical evolution, 
let us consider the biological significance of the empirical fact 
of this conscious tendency to organization. That significance 
will be found to consist in the determination of the ultimate 
scientific basis, or the empirical starting-point, of biological 
evolution, as a cosmic and not an acosmic condition. In any 
ultimate empirical basis of biological evolution science must pre- 
suppose the tendency to organization because the present known 
biological world exhibits at least in conscious spirit a certain 
degree of this tendency. Furthermore, science must admit as a 
possible element in that ultimate empirical basis a non-tendency 
to organization because in our present known biological status 
this non-tendency exists at least in conscious spirit as the empir- 



24 THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMANITIES 

ical correlate of the conscious tendency. We cannot assume 
this non-tendency at any particular point of previous biological 
evolution, because such elements may be rationally viewed as a 
sort of dead-waste of organization and therefore as an integral 
part of organization, though set off in consciousness as non- 
organization because not empirically participant in organization. 
But neither can we disprove and repudiate this non-tendency as 
an element in our possible biological basis, because on empirical 
grounds it may have as good right to be as the tendency to 
organization. Furthermore, thought must assert the primacy of 
the element of organization in the sense that the non-tendency 
must be viewed as incidental to the tendency, and not the ten- 
dency to organization as incidental to inertia or chaos. Thought 
cannot view organization as the dead-waste of non-organization, 
cosmos as a side issue to chaos, just as it cannot think purpose 
a function of indifference, order a function of confusion, life a 
function of death. On the contrary, experience of thought and 
life seems to justify the position that the tendency to biological 
organization which we call life has this advantage over non- 
tendency, that it waxes in power and tends to invade the realm 
of non-tendency and win it over to organization in cell and plant 
and animal. But an acosmic empirical basis of life that must 
develop into a cosmic one is an impossible conception for science. 
Therefore, in view of this empirical fact of the divine tendency 
to biological organization, as cognized in consciousness, science 
must posit as its ultimate biological basis a cosmos in ovo, and 
it must repudiate as unscientfk all conceptions of a chaotic or 
"chance" biological condition. 

I shall not raise the analogous question with reference to the 
astronomical world, because our whole inquiry is confined to 
phenomena of life. Although science assumes the biological 
world as arising on the basis of the astronomical, she has not 
yet succeeded in showing either life to be an astronomical, or 
motion to be a biological, phenomenon. Until this is achieved the 
relation of thought to the astronomical process will continue 
fundamentally different from its relation to the biological process. 



THE EVOLUTION OF CULTURE 25 

Thought contemplates the biological process from within, because 
it is itself a function of that process, but thought's relation to 
non-life remains persistently an outer relation, in accordance with 
which thought can only interpret non-life in terms of life, and 
must therefore waive the scientific cogency of all conclusions 
about non-life and even of extra-conscious life that are based upon 
life's experience of itself. Hence, while the analogy between 
biological evolution and astronomical evolution is very near, we 
could not make it more than an analogy without assuming, in the 
first place, the existence of a tendency in non-life, which we 
know only for life, and, in the second place, even admitting a 
tendency to cosmos in non-life, that the empirical biological fact 
of consciousness that organizing tendencies prevail against non- 
organizing tendencies is likewise an empirical astronomical fact, 
— which we cannot assert. In a word, to make our argument for 
a cosmic biologic basis cogent for a cosmic astronomical basis 
we must practically assume what we posit as non-life to be one 
with life. Thought will continue to interpret the phenomena of 
astronomical evolution in terms of those of biological evolution, 
but science will deny anything but the analogy until thought 
itself is shown to be a mode of motion, or energy a mode of life. 
But not only does the fact of this biological tendency to 
cosmos determine for science the empirical basis of life ; it 
determines and explains for religion the metempirical ideal. The 
ideal of human faith while beyond empirical thought may not 
clash with empirical thought, for both religion and science are 
phenomena of one life. The same law of that life in accord with 
which science posits a cosmic empirical basis for that life will 
determine for faith a cosmic metempirical basis of the nature of 
organizing spirit, for organizing spirit is the noblest manifestation 
of that life. While reason cannot arrive at a first cause, because 
the rational quest of a first cause involves reason in the hopeless 
regress of antecedents, yet the history of humanity and the 
experience of the individual show that reason rests naively in a 
first cause of the nature of spirit. The explanation is that such 
an ideal, though unattainable by empirical thought, is sympathetic 



26 THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMANITIES 

with empirical thought, while the non-spiritual principle, even 
though like the atoms of Democritus, simple and satisfactory 
as a process, falls as a first cause under the ban of reason and 
the infinite regress, because thought refuses to rest naively in a 
first cause that ignores life and its highest manifestation, human 
spirit. Hence it is that as culture advances to the reflective stage 
the transcendental sanction tends more and more to express 
itself in a religion of Organizing Spirit, in which the cultured 
mind realizes the maximum reconciliation between knowledge 
and faith. 

Let us now sum up our results. From the general interpre- 
tative standpoint of a volitional metaphysics, the evolution of 
culture has been presented as an invariable series of phenomena 
evolving, in obedience to psychological law, under the impulse 
of physical and spiritual stimuli, which find their most typical 
conceptual expression in the terms geography and religion. 
Under the primitive indirect influence of physical environment 
and the subsequent direct influence of spiritual aspiration after 
worth in life and truth in things, the three successive stages of 
culture-achievement, the social-political, the artistic or imagi- 
native, and the philosophic or reflective stage, unfold themselves 
in the order of psychological process. The tendency to spiritual 
organization effectuates itself empirically by the way of habit, 
which is the empirical mode of the operation of experience. The 
consciousness of this tendency, which is given in thought, 
involves for thought the scientific repudiation of a "chance" or 
acosmic biological standpoint or starting-point, whether empir- 
ical as in science or metempirical as in religion. 



THE PEDAGOGIC ASPECT 
OF CULTURE-EVOLUTION 



II. 

THE PEDAGOGIC ASPECT OF CULTURE-EVOLUTION 

ORGANIZATION OF THE LATIN HUMANITIES 

IN THE COLLEGE. 



Delivered before the University of Texas in February of 1897. 



When thought addresses itself either to the world of life or 
to the astronomical-physical world, the thing that appears con- 
spicuously as a common trait of both is a principle of organiza- 
tion, which manifests itself in the highest form of reality, the 
human spirit, as a natural tendency to culture, — that is, to 
economic, artistic, and scientific organization. Consciousness 
recognizes the will as the motive power behind this tendency to 
spiritual organization, and thought, interpreting the outer world 
of life and non-life in terms of the Ego, points the way to a 
volitional metaphysics. For to some first principle we must 
come, since that primal will within us demands and ultimately 
decrees it and thought continually approaches it. Nothing is 
truer than that the heart and mind thirst to rest in God. And 
herein we recognize the ultimate mystery in higher culture, — 
this spiritual longing for the good, the beautiful, and the true; 
and herein the ultimate power of the cultured will, — to tran- 
scend experience in the construction of its own ideals and so to 
anticipate in thought the haven where it would be. These basal 
longings of the human heart, the strange children of the strug- 
gles and rivalries of existence with its divinely imposed law of 
survival by progress and selection, or by whatever other empir- 
ical process science may interpret to itself the course of spiritual 
evolution, take shape in religion, by which we mean the con- 
straining power of these ideals of the will upon the work and 
thought of men. Religion we find everywhere answering the 
highest cravings of the human spirit, those that condition and 
determine all others, the craving for ultimate, unconditioned 

29 



30 THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMANITIES 

worth, and the craving for ultimate, unconditioned truth, the 
supreme wants of heart and head. Its ideal is therefore supreme 
in culture because as the ultimate sanction it gives value and 
significance to all the higher aspirations and activities of life. 
These ideal interests and aspirations of the individual and the 
collective will become instinctively incorporated with the super- 
natural in religion, in which, therefore, the process of culture 
from the period of social-political organization throughout each 
subsequent stage of its evolution, its era of artistic activity and 
its era of philosophic activity, is strongly rooted. Hence it is 
that as the religious ideal becomes purer and higher it imparts a 
like character to the ideals of culture, and as it declines under the 
influence of satiety, excessive luxury, or other cause of spiritual 
stagnation, then government, art, and science decline with it ; 
for that from which the ultimate sanction springs for the worth 
of the state, of art, and of science, that whence comes all worth 
to life, must needs involve life and culture in its own decay. 

It is important at the outset to emphasize the purely empir- 
ical meaning and verifiability of these and all similar statements 
about religion, and furthermore to remind the reader that refer- 
ence is only intended to that segment of culture-evolution which 
is already achieved. Our gaze is directed upon man in history, 
not upon the possible future of culture ; and our inquiry is 
purely empirical, not even speculative and in no sense idealizing. 
In every essential statement appeal is made to the world of 
experience. 

The earliest twilight dawn of culture in the prehistoric period 
of the cave-dwellers shows the birth of art under the inspiration 
of the sense of the supernatural. The lancehead carved with the 
mammoth, the harpoon-fang ornamented with a fish, seem to 
have become supernatural weapons in the thought of these people 
of the old stone age; cf. Keary, Dawn of History, p. 20. If the 
stimulus of these dim, transcendental notions that do not rise 
above the dignity of fetichism was so effective in the life of the 
cave-man as to produce a style of art-carving that excites the 
wonder of archaeologists, we are' prepared to find in the neolithic 



PEDAGOGIC ASPECT OF CULTURE EVOLUTION 31 

era, where a nobler view of life and the other world expresses 
itself in grander types of art, the mighty tumuli of their heroes 
and the stately cromlechs of their gods. These vast structures 
belong to the first era of consecutive human tradition, the 
neolithic age, for the men of the old stone age are cut off from 
us by a period of unknown duration and voiceless silence. But 
here when the race reappears we trace over the entire globe 
what seems to be the indestructible relics of its tendency and 
power to revere, and thus at this prehistoric period the religious 
and transcendental ideal is the inspiration of all that has perpetu- 
ated the memory of these remarkable Turanian forerunners of 
Mediterranean culture. 

We are not suprised, therefore, that as we enter upon the 
pathway of literary tradition we find ourselves everywhere 
ushered through the sacred portals of religion into the very 
heart of the social and political economy, the art, and the 
science of mankind. Everywhere it is this power of the soul to 
revere that lifts humanity into the godlike way of culture, where 
springs into being all that ennobles life, and suggests the 
divinity of our race ; and everywhere in history it is with this 
key that we open the door to a knowledge of the inner processes 
of culture in society, in art, and in scientific activity. 

The earliest historical art on the walls of Egyptian tombs, 
like the art of the cave-man, seems to have been inspired by a 
faith in the supernatural meaning and efficacy of such imitative 
portrayals, for thus the double of the dead man enjoyed in the 
tomb the doubles of his earthly possessions and experiences. 
And again in her monumental forms aged Egypt takes up the 
thread of prehistoric art and shows us the simple grave-mound 
and dolmen-circles of the mighty Turanian brotherhood devel- 
oped now under the same spiritual influence into the Egyptian 
pyramid and temple; cf. Keary, Dawn of History, p. 53. 

But here in Egypt we emerge from the twilight of unrecorded 
history and for the first time are enabled to survey the entire 
scope of the religious ideal in human life, for only implements 
of handiwork and products of formative art are independent of 



32 THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMANITIES 

literary tradition. On the other hand, customs and laws, music 
and song, philosophy and science, must be caught up for us in 
the written symbol, or they are forever lost to history along with 
all knowledge of the influences that fostered them. With the 
Egyptian civilization dawns the continuous life of Mediterranean 
culture. Theodore Mommsen begins his great history of Rome 
with these words: "The Mediterranean Sea with its various 
branches, penetrating far into the great continent, forms the 
largest gulf of the ocean, and alternately narrowed by islands or 
projections of the land and expanding to considerable breadth, 
at once separates and connects the three divisions of the Old 
World. The shores of this inland sea were in ancient times 
peopled by various nations belonging from an ethnographical 
and philological point of view to different races, but constituting 
in their historical aspect one whole. This historic whole has 
been usually, but not very appropriately, entitled the history of 
the ancient world. It is in reality the history of civilization 
among the Mediterranean nations ; and, as it passes before us in 
its successive stages, it presents four great phases of develop- 
ment, — the history of the Coptic or Egyptian stock dwelling 
on the southern shore, the history of the Aramaean or Syrian 
nation which occupied the east coast and extended into the 
interior of Asia as far as the Euphrates and Tigris, and the his- 
tories of the twin-peoples, the Hellenes and Italians, who received 
as their heritage the countries on the European shore. Each of 
these histories was in its earlier stages connected with other regions 
and with other cycles of historical evolution ; but each soon 
entered on its own distinctive career. The surrounding nations 
of alien or even of kindred extraction — the Berbers and Negroes 
of Africa, the Arabs, Persians, and Indians of Asia, the Celts 
and Germans of Europe — came into manifold contact with the 
peoples inhabiting the borders of the Mediterranean, but they 
neither imparted unto them nor received from them any influ- 
ences exercising decisive effect on their respective destinies. So 
far, therefore, as cycles of culture admit of demarcation at all, 
the cycle which has its culminating points denoted by the names, 



PEDAGOGIC ASPECT OF CULTURE EVOLUTION 33 

Thebes, Carthage, Athens, and Rome, may be regarded as an unity. 
The four nations represented by these names, after each of them 
had attained in a path of its own a peculiar and noble civiliza- 
tion, mingled with one another in the most varied relations 
of reciprocal intercourse, and skillfully elaborated, and richly 
developed all the elements of human nature. At length their 
cycle was accomplished. New peoples, who hitherto had only 
laved the territories of the states of the Mediterranean as waves 
lave the beach, overflowed both its shores, severed the history 
of its south coast from that of the north and transferred the 
center of civilization from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic 
Ocean. The distinction between ancient and modern history, 
therefore, is no mere accident, nor yet a mere matter of chron- 
ological convenience. What is called modern history is in 
reality the formation of a new cycle of culture, connected in 
several stages of its development with the perishing or perished 
civilization of the Mediterranean states, as this was connected 
with the primitive civilization of the Indo-Germanic stock, but 
destined, like the earlier cycle, to traverse an orbit of its own. 
It, too, is destined to experience in full measure the vicissitudes 
of national weal and woe, the periods of growth, of maturity, 
and of age, the blessedness of creative effort in religion, polity, 
and art, the comfort of enjoying the material and intellectual 
acquisitions which it has won, perhaps also, some day, the decay 
of productive power in the satiety of contentment with the goal 
attained. And yet this goal will only be temporary : the grand- 
est system of civilization has its orbit and may complete its 
course ; but not so the human race, to which, just when it seems 
to have reached its goal, the old task is ever set anew with a 
wider range and with a deeper meaning." 

The old task of which Mommsen speaks is the task of higher 
culture. The three successive stages in its fulfillment are society, 
art, and science, and its regnant inspiration has ever been the 
idealizing human will, with its God-given reverence for what it 
believed to be the good, the beautiful, and the true. This is 
everywhere the lesson of history. Examine the significance of 



34 THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMANITIES 

Osiris and Isis in Coptic civilization, and of the entire trans- 
cendental hierarchy in Aramaean culture, and the religious ideal 
will be found basal to the institutions, the art, and the science of 
Egypt and Western Asia. Notably in the rounded civilization 
of Greece is the religious ideal conspicuous and the three culture 
forms in which it successively realizes itself apparent. Olympian 
Zeus and Delphic Apollo are the soul of all that is characteristic 
of Greek culture. They rule in the institutions of private and 
public life, their spirit lives in the poetry of Homer and the art 
of Pheidias, and utters itself in the philosophy of a Socrates, a 
Plato, and an Aristotle. The evolution of ancient culture pre- 
sents itself to us everywhere in three successive steps, economic, 
artistic, and reflective, and each successive stage of that culture- 
historical cycle exhibits the power of the religious ideal, first in 
the organization of society, next in the forms of art, and lastly 
in the trend of philosophy and science. Such is the lesson of 
Egyptian, Aramaean, Greek, and Roman civilization alike. 

It is left to those conversant with the trend of the indi- 
vidual national cultures of the Atlantic cycle to observe the 
applicability of this law in detail to the more complex phe- 
nomena of modern history. And yet striking analogies present 
themselves immediately even to the lay-student of European 
civilization subsequent to the fall of the ancient regime, when 
practically the world begins anew the old task of culture. Here 
our fundamental factor is the religion of Christ. The first stage 
is the building of the social and political fabric. In the con- 
struction of the new social regime the religious point of view is 
dominant, in the construction of the political regime the key- 
note is the doctrine of Christ, "Render unto Caesar the things 
that are Caesar's," which is realized in the blending of Roman 
jurisprudence with the hitherto unwritten laws of Germanic 
Christendom. The social and political foundation under the 
auspices of Christianity being thus laid, what is the next 
supreme phenomena in the evolution of modern culture ? 
The Homer of Christendom, Dante and the Divina Commedia 
— with the religion of Christ as the inspiration. Then follow 



PEDAGOGIC ASPECT OF CULTURE EVOLUTION 35 

in rapid unfolding the creations of Michael Angelo and Raphael 
in cathedral architecture, sculpture, and painting — all under the 
same mighty impulse of religion and reproducing in striking 
counterpart for Atlantic culture the age of Pheidias and Poly- 
gnotus in Mediterranean art. The era of the beautiful is inaug- 
urated and achieved, and we look expectantly for the birth of 
modern science and philosophy. Descartes, the Aristotle of the 
modern world, inaugurates the philosophic era with his system 
of Christian monism, and one by one the separate sciences of 
nature and man detach themselves and follow their respective 
pathways, once more leaving to philosophy its ancient moral 
function as critic and purifier of religion along with its new 
scientific function as harmonizer and unifier of the spiritual 
cosmos. 

This theory of the law and process of culture-evolution, 
which places the human will at the basis of all human achieve- 
ment and holds religion to be the mighty mainspring of that 
will in the history of culture, the crucial spiritual differentiation 
that has made for culture historical survival, and which on this 
foundation goes on to construe the inner process of that history 
as a succession of phenomena, characterizable as social-political, 
artistic, and scientific, has been more fully stated in a previous 
paper on "the Evolution of Culture." 

Having outlined the successive phases of spiritual activity as 
they rise into being in the course of culture-evolution under the 
promptings of those eternal longings which make up the basal 
essence of human life as we find it in higher culture, and which 
express themselves in maximum potency in the typical form of 
religion, we now approach the subject of this inquiry, the peda- 
gogic application of the theory. 

The peril of applying a false view of life to the organization 
of studies bids us pause at this point and reenvisage our practi- 
cal, efficient data in clear, cold reason, and thus fix the possible 
limit of error in the theory and so of evil in its application. The 
difficulty of all spiritual inquiry appears at once when we con- 
trast it, on the one hand, with mathematical processes and, on 



36 THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMANITIES 

the other, with natural inquiry. Mathematics has only to do 
ultimately with the formal arrangement, never with the con- 
tent of phenomena ; cf. Wundt, System der Philosophie , p. 26. Its 
only link with experience exhibits itself in the form of a few 
colorless postulates : it is of all sciences the farthest removed 
from empirical reality. Its mode of procedure is purely logical 
and therefore independent of the whole content of experience. 
Its conclusions are thus deductive and therefore independent of 
all verification by observation and experiment. It is therefore 
out of all touch with the difficulties and uncertainties of induc- 
tion. Herein we find apparently the psychological reason why 
mathematics aud its immediate applications in mechanics and 
astronomy should have so early attained independent develop- 
ment. 

We recognize at once the increased difficulty of inquiry 
when we pass from the merely formal or mathematical sciences 
to the sciences of natural, biological, and spiritual reality. Here 
the objective world is ever standing over against thought and 
enforcing conformity between the results of induction and its 
own inner content. The mathematics and the logic of the 
chemist, the physicist, the economist, and the psychologist may 
be ever so faultless, but unless the data of experience have been 
so full as to suppress no significant natural, biological, or spiritual 
factor, the result, though perfect mathematically and logically, 
will be repudiated as unreal by the voice of reality. Herein we 
find the psychological reason why physics and chemistry should 
not have attained independent development so early as mathe- 
matical science with its simple empirical data. 

But even within these more contentful and real sciences of 
objective empirical experience there stands out one group of 
supreme experimental difficulty ; this is the group of spiritual 
sciences, as contrasted with the material, or chemical-physical 
sciences, and even as contrasted with kindred biological sciences 
in their restricted sense. The sciences of spirit depend for their 
data upon the observation of spiritual facts ; but spiritual facts, 
supremely real and supremely precious as they are, do not stand 



PEDAGOGIC ASPECT OF CULTURE EVOLUTION 37 

before us objectified in a world of sense, nor can they be repro- 
duced at will in the spiritual laboratory of the sociologist and 
the psychologist. Herein we find the psychological reason why 
politics and psychology were relatively late in becoming scien- 
tifically organized. 

Striving to steer clear of the Charybdis of false induction, 
we have made in our theory of culture-evolution only those wide 
generalizations from spiritual phenomena which seem to be 
psychologically justified and necessitated. The ultimate and 
irreducible phenomenon in all life is an impulse, a striving, a 
want. Rational process as such is but an acquired means of 
demonstrably late origin, applied by living spirit to the attain- 
ment of its ends. Here let us shun for our lives the maze of 
metaphysical dialectics and use terms only as symbols of empiri- 
cal facts. Let the psychical anatomist abstract if he please his 
concepts of thought and feeling and will from the empirical 
reality with which we are dealing, but let us not invest these 
fictions of abstracting analysis with anything further than 
abstract reality and involve ourselves in idle ratiocinations as to 
whether either of two inseparable phases of one reality consti- 
tutes the starting point of culture-evolution. When I use the 
term will as the mainspring of culture, I do not mean to exclude 
thinking or any necessary element of spiritual activity : I mean 
simply the total spiritual reality, symbolized from the point of 
view of its active, impelling quality. Phenomena of evolution 
present themselves empirically from no other side. The fact 
that I find empirically in plant and animal life an irreducible 
impulse to organization, or the fact that I find empirically in 
human life an irreducible impulse to culture-unfolding is wholly 
indifferent to any subsequent and purely logical analysis of that 
impelling reality into biological or psychological abstractions. 
Let us waive then these distinctions of thought, and stick to 
objective reality as empirically presented to consciousness. 
There never was a thought-act that was not at the same moment 
a will-act, there never was a will-act that was not a thought-act ; 
and the subjectivity of feeling is incident to both. 



3 8 THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMANITIES 

Granting then the empirical fact that the wants of man are 
basal to his attainments, what do we find those wants to be in 
every historical civilization and in every individual life ? They 
are first material wants and then spiritual wants. The satisfac- 
tion of his material wants is the condition of the existence of 
society and the cause of its formation. His spiritual wants, as 
we find them in history and personal experience, are longings 
to find worth and longings to find truth, in life and things. 
Everywhere in history the ideals of religion furnish the prime 
satisfaction of these longings of head and heart. Religion is 
clearly the creation of these longings, as the practical institu- 
tions of private and public life are the creations of his material 
wants. Then follow in simple obedience to psychological law 
the art-activity and the philosophic activity, the one satisfying 
his longing to objectify his spiritual interests in imperishable 
forms of beauty, the other satisfying the exacter claims of reason, 
no longer content with the naive data of the religious presenta- 
tion in matters susceptible of natural explanation. 

Approaching now our pedagogical problem, we observe 
between these three successive stages of culture-evolution, society, 
art and science, a most important psychological relation. Psy- 
chologically viewed, the first or social-political stage is one of 
immediate, presentative spiritual activity ; the second or artistic 
stage is one of imaginative spiritual activity ; and the third, or 
philosophic stage, is one of rationalizing spiritual activity. 
These are no speculative catch-words. It is not meant that 
any presentative activity does not connote both imaginative and 
rationalizing activities, nor that any imaginative activity does 
not connote reflective activity. We have to do with empirical 
phenomena, not logical abstractions. All that is insisted upon 
is that in the presentative activity which society evidences in its 
practical-political stage of state building no art activity and no 
reflective activity is as yet consciously emphasized, and in the 
idealizing creations of art as they first appear in the evolution of 
any individual civilization pure rationalizing spiritual activity is 
wholly subconscious and unevolved. 



PEDAGOGIC ASPECT OF CULTURE EVOLUTION 39 

But this formula of folk-psychology, presentation, imagina- 
tion, and reflection, is at once a formula of individual psychol- 
ogy, and our theory of the evolution of culture is verified in 
consciousness and becomes a pedagogic law for all humanistic 
instruction. The psychological order of the evolution of col- 
lective culture is the psychological order of the evolution of 
individual culture. The evolution of culture is the evolution of 
the individual spirit written large. 

Having found then our process of culture-evolution in history 
to correspond to and objectify the process of psychological 
unfolding in the individual, we have a twofold reason for the 
thoroughgoing application of the theory to all instruction in 
the history of culture ; our theory presents the grand and salient 
phenomena of civilization, economic-social, creative-artistic, and 
scientific-reflective, in their chronological sequence, the only 
possible order for the study of processes of life, and, further- 
more, since these phenomena prove to stand in a natural psy- 
chological sequence, the mind of the pupil, approaching them 
not merely in the order of their unfolding, but actually in the 
order of its own unfolding, is thus stimulated to full, healthy 
development in sympathy with the total life of cultured human- 
ity- 

Thus we shall have the true humanities, philosophically 
organized and invested with supreme pedagogic efficiency in all 
directions. The gain will be infinite, whereas the loss will be 
nil. In place of the old chaos we shall have a cosmos, whose 
fair order and noble worth will silence forever the ignoramus 
and the bigot, and all their brayings against Greek. The study 
of one rounded civilization will bring the student in touch with 
the active forces of all, and with the heart-beat of culture-his- 
tory. He will learn the power of an ideal in human life, and 
observe the influences of natural environment. He will be 
present at the organization of society, and watch the growth of 
institutions. He will behold the birth of art and realize its 
function in culture. He will understand the beginnings of philoso- 
phy and see the separate sciences leap Minerva-like from its 



40 THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMANITIES 

brow. He will incarnate the pure spirit of humanity in the 
highest sense of the 

" Homo sum, humani nil a me alienum puto! " 

Our law is discovered, our task done. When science dis- 
covers a law, its application becomes immediate and mechanical. 
But the glory of a physical law is one, and the glory of a spiritual 
law is another ; the one is a principle of divine mechanism, the 
other of divine life. The application of a physical law can 
effect the higher life of humanity only indirectly, the application 
of a spiritual law reaches the heart of humanity and determines 
the issues of life. Let us briefly test its application to the most 
difficult case in history, the civilization of the Latins. I say, 
the most difficult civilization for the fair test of our pedagogic 
scheme, because Roman civilization never evolved with native, 
indigenous life beyond the first stage of culture-evolution : its 
supreme achievements were social-political ; its art and science 
were abortive graftings from the eternal flower of Greece. 

The ultimate aim of all humanistic instruction is to humanize. 
To humanize is to enrich the heart and mind of the student by 
leading him to live over in thought and feeling the complete 
spiritual unfolding of a great people by repeating in imagination 
the experience of their sensuous environment, of their religious 
sanctions, their social and political life, their poetry and forma- 
tive art, their philosophy and science. If such knowledge of 
man is the beau ideal of humanistic study, our theory of the 
evolution of culture furnishes a clear-cut rationale for the work 
of preparatory and collegiate instruction. 

The spirit and ideal of both is the same. The stress of pre- 
paratory instruction, however, must lie in preparation, since the 
four years of high-school work are too short for the full realiza- 
tion of the humanistic ideal. That ideal, however, should, in 
all historical instruction, be constantly held before the mind of 
the high-school pupil, and even in the Latin reading of the pre- 
paratory years the way should be laid for the comprehensive 
grasp of the phenomena of culture as more elaboratory unfolded 



PEDAGOGIC ASPECT OF CULTURE EVOLUTION 41 

in the college courses. Simple historical reading, with appro- 
priate suggestions and illustrations as to the geographical envi- 
ronment, religious beliefs, customs and institutions of the people, 
followed by similar readings in poetry, illustrative of the power 
of the national ideals in art creation, and accompanied by simple 
objective instruction in the inspiring beauties of plastic and 
architectural art, will represent the culture-historical side of 
high-school Latin. In the meantime, grammatical and linguistic 
studies will fall into line in their true perspective, and will pro- 
ceed under the fine impulse of an irresistible human interest in 
the highest achievements of the race. Should the hard injustice 
of fate cut short the education of the individual at the close of 
the high-school stage, he will nevertheless have won both in 
general history proper and in the special discipline of the classics 
a living principle of thought and study that will give him a 
power and a grasp over the processes of all higher national life, 
and best equip him for usefulness in the state. Should fortune, 
on the other hand, smile upon his destiny, he will enter college 
equipped, among other things, with that practical mastery of the 
language in prose and verse which will enable him, in the main, 
to take up the literature in the order suggested both by the his- 
tory of culture and by the process of psychological activity, that 
is, the practical, historical literature first, the imaginative and 
poetic next, and the philosophic or reflective last. 

It is obvious that in the first, or, as I may term it for the 
sake of brevity, the historical course proper, the order in which 
the authors should be taken up would be determined by the 
order of the historical periods of which they treated, for all 
process, spiritual and physical, must be studied chronologi- 
cally. The process of their narrative is by definition the process 
of the social and political unfolding. Hence the most diffi- 
cult author in any given cycle of culture might be the first 
to be attacked because of the primal position of his subject- 
matter in the historical unfolding. The difficulty that would 
confront inadequate or faulty preparation, however, would be 
serious only at the beginning of the college course. If the first 



42 THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMANITIES 

over-difficult author were successfully accomplished, the chance 
of a like encounter would be ipso facto greatly diminished, for 
one tolerably difficult historian would probably smooth the way 
for all that followed. The culture-historical foundation being 
laid in the first course, the art and philosophy will follow in easy 
and natural sequence, while the question of the relative diffi- 
culty of authors within the succeeding courses will have lost its 
seriousness after the experience gained in connection with the 
first. 

Again, when we come to the second and third series of phe- 
nomena, the art-activity, and the philosophic-scientific thought 
of the people, a different principle of arrangement must clearly 
prevail ; for while, in the first series, our chronology is that of 
the subject-matter, since that furnishes the order of culture- 
evolution, in the artistic and philosophic stages our chronology 
is that of the authors, because their successive appearance marks 
the process of unfolding of art and science, whereas the chro- 
nology of their subject-matter is indifferent. Here, therefore, 
the most antique and possibly difficult poet or philosopher would 
be taken up first, and the brunt of difficulty would again be 
encountered at the beginning, instead of at the end, of the poetic 
and philosophic courses respectively. This difficulty, however, 
will be continually minimized by the grammatical-linguistic studies 
incidental to the reading of the authors, for these studies will 
continue to go hand-in-hand with the culture-historical series in 
the college until the theory of the language has been thoroughly 
mastered, and the foundation laid for specialistic linguistics in 
the university. But since the humanistic aim is paramount for 
the highest ends of life, the linguistic interest will be best sub- 
served by subordinating it to that aim throughout the high 
school and college humanities. 

Assuming now that our four years' course of high-school 
Latin has duly accomplished its task of preparation for the col- 
lege humanities as above characterized, it remains for us to out- 
line the pedagogic process of the humanistic side of college 
Latin. We are first concerned with the foundations of Roman 



PEDAGOGIC ASPECT OF CULTURE EVOLUTION 43 

civilization or the historical side proper. The historical authors 
in the chronological sequence of subject matter become the 
appropriate Latin reading, for, besides presenting the Roman 
view of the historic unfolding of the nation from its origin to its 
climax, they furnish the true context for the study of the essen- 
tial factors of the first stage of all civilization, the physical 
environment or Classical Geography, the religious ideals or 
Classical Mythology, and the social and political institutions or 
the Private and Public Antiquities of the nation. Livy, Sallust, 
Cicero, and Tacitus, furnish abundant reading for the longest 
possible course in Roman historical writing, while Nepos, Pliny 
the Younger, and Suetonius, furnish available parallel reading 
in touch with the spirit of the course. 

The remaining culture-historical topics, which may be called 
collateral studies as accompanying the formal reading of the lit- 
erature, may all be compassed in a single course and in sub- 
stantial and suggestive outline through excellent manuals of 
elementary or of advanced character, according to the needs of 
the individual or the class. Such manuals have been prepared 
in Classical Geography, in Classical Mythology, and in the 
Religious and Secular Institutions of the Romans, while the 
entire treasury of modern historical commentary upon Roman 
History, Religion, and Antiquities completes our possible col- 
lateral apparatus. Indeed this blending of the modern point of 
view, as presented by the great authorities of the nineteenth 
century, with the antique, as presented in the classic authors, is 
the saving clause in the theory of the Latin humanities ; thus 
do we wed the past and the present, and the torch of culture 
beams with added lustre over the union. 

Nor should it be feared that the volume of the work tran- 
scends the possibilities of even the shortest college year ; it is 
not details of knowledge, but living principles of spiritual evolu- 
tion, that constitute the goal of humanistic studies. The point 
of view is all. A few winged words here and there from the 
lips of a teacher who has stood face to face with these phenom- 
ena, who has felt the mighty heart-beat of historic life, will 



44 THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMANITIES 

suffice to open up the vista down which a single glance is worth 
an encyclopaedia of dead facts. The important pedagogical 
point is not at all the matter, but the spirit of the teaching. Let 
the teacher guard the spirit, and it will follow as the night the 
day that the matter will take care of itself. The simplest and 
briefest course of historical reading will furnish abundant occa- 
sion to show in unmistakable light the operation of these laws 
of culture, and that, too, without compromising the regular sub- 
ject-matter of instruction ; on the contrary, that subject-matter 
will assume a deeper significance under the transfiguring light 
of these higher truths. To recognize the significance of environ- 
ment, of the physical basis, in man's life, to see the necessity and 
the power of the religious ideal in culture-evolution, to watch 
the simple unfoldings of customs and laws and of the individual 
and national character which they express, are things to which 
every page of Latin history lends pointed and precious occasion. 
And such is the high spiritual function of the first course in the 
Latin humanities. 

Having caught the spirit of the social-political epoch in 
Roman civilization, we are prepared to observe the next phe- 
nomenon, which follows with unerring precision, — the artistic 
life of the people. Religious poetry and song, temple architec- 
ture, with its handmaidens, sculpture, and painting, repeat the 
old story of man's spiritual life in the native art-activity of the 
Romans. But before Roman art had developed beyond the 
rudest beginnings, two disturbing factors are introduced into the 
course of evolution, — the decay of religion and slavery to Greek 
genius. In place of an ideal religion of gods and heroes we have 
a practical religion of state ; patriotism monopolizes the reli- 
gious sanction. A naive patriotism is practical and not ideal ; it 
grasps after the ripened fruit wherewith to crown its idol. At 
the very dawn of Roman indigenous art-life, Greek Poetry, 
Greek Architecture, Greek Sculpture and Painting, became one 
vast plunder pile for this patriotic vandal, and we are left with 
the barren waste of Roman Art. The beauty we find there is 
primarily Greek, the waste is Roman. Hence, in this stage of 



PEDAGOGIC ASPECT OF CULTURE EVOLUTION 45 

Roman culture, as indeed throughout its entire subsequent his- 
tory, the fruitful humanistic point of view will be dominantly the 
religious, ethical, and political aspect of Roman civilization, and 
only subordinately the purely artistic or scientific interest. Plau- 
tus and Terence, Catullus and Horace, Vergil and the Elegiac 
Poets, along with the study of Roman Metric Art will constitute 
our literary canon, and Roman Formative Art will round the sec- 
ond course in the Latin humanities. In this latter connection a 
new principle of pedagogic treatment rises into such importance 
as to demand special comment, — this is the principle of object- 
lessons. Plastic Art, including Architecture, is objective, and 
therefore demands for its proper study concrete illustrations. 
This need will already have been felt in connection with the 
religion and the social life of the people, but here the ordinary 
illustrations afforded by the dictionary of antiquities or by 
diagrams and wall-plates answer all practical purposes, since the 
aesthetic sense is not primarily involved in the consideration of 
the religious and social phenomena of culture-history. But in 
the study of the art-life of a nation it is a prime necessity that 
their creations of beauty be realized by the student either 
through the aid of reproductions or of exact photographs. 
Plaster casts of typical sculpture, and models of characteristic 
architectural details, open up a new world to the pupil whose 
experience has hitherto been limited to the text-book. Roman 
music falls outside our pedagogic province because the musical 
note dies with the vibration that produced it. Painting, too, is 
of little pedagogic importance because the colors fade with the 
lapse of ages, and only some rare catastrophe, like the volcanic 
burial of Pompeii, preserves to us the relics of antique painting. 
A museum of Archaeology and Art is thus an invaluable aid to 
the humanistic studies of the first and second courses. But 
with a people whose civilization, like ours, corresponds for the 
most part with the first, or social-political stage, such ideal 
needs are the last to be supplied, and the student is fortunate 
who has access to a good collection of photographs, or better 
still, to a few well-selected plaster-casts. In Architecture the 



46 THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMANITIES 

capitals and entablatures of the Greek orders and of their 
Roman modifications, in Sculpture a grand type from each 
successive period of art from the Lion Gate of Mycenae to 
the last dying smile of beauty on the Triumphal Arch of the 
Romans, would make a little humanistic series worth its weight 
in gold for the high ends of culture. 

The state being founded and beautified, there is nothing now 
left for the restless spirit of man but to philosophize, to inquire. 
With this third and highest stage of historic life we enter into 
the inner loom of the culture-evolution of humanity, for the 
philosopher of one era must start out from the theories of his 
teachers, however radically he may subsequently diverge from 
their standpoints. Hence it is that the history of philosophic 
and scientific thought presents itself as a continuous stream into 
which all cultures, individual and national, converge at their high- 
est stage, and no portion of which can be understood apart from 
the current of which it is a segment. The silver cord of rational 
continuity articulates all philosophic systems in the same cul- 
ture-historical cycle. The history of philosophy, therefore, 
marks in a peculiar sense the high-water line of culture along 
the continuous pathway of humanity's spiritual unfolding. When 
we survey the Roman spiritual world at its entrance upon the 
reflective stage of culture, we note the striking fact that the 
Romans have lapsed into the same religious and moral" slough of 
despond as the Greeks subsequent to Alexander. The religion 
of the gods had failed them and now the religion of patriotism 
was well nigh starved out. Philosophy, therefore, in the form 
of a consolatory ethics, attempts to substitute the religion it has 
helped to undermine, and, like Greek art in the previous stage, 
Greek Stoicism, Epicureanism, and Skepticism were received with 
open arms into the Roman thought-world. Our pedagogical 
task is thus clearly defined for the reflective period of the Latin 
humanities: Roman Ethical Philosophy in Lucretius, Cicero, and 
Seneca, with collateral reading in the History of Philosophy, 
will constitute the gist of the work, — and our pedagogical scheme 
for the undergraduate humanities is completely unfolded. 



PEDAGOGIC ASPECT OF CULTURE EVOLUTION 47 

Departments of literary activity subordinate to the typical 
forms utilized in the curriculum but yet involving authors of 
importance will fall into line without difficulty as collateral or 
supplementary courses under their appropriate culture-historical 
periods. Thus Roman Biography, as represented by Nepos, 
Tacitus, and Suetonius, would associate itself with the historical 
authors ; Roman Rhetoric and Oratory, as discussed by Cicero 
and Quintilian, with the artistic period ; and Roman Satire, as it 
appears in Horace, Juvenal, and Persius, with the philosophic or 
reflective era. 

Our theory of the evolution of culture, therefore, when applied 
to the special civilization before us, reduces the chaos of culture- 
historical phenomena to the organic unity of a biological process, 
unfolding itself, as above exhibited, in the consecutive phases of 
Roman culture. But on the basis of this organic unity we are 
led to an organized view of universal history. The reflective 
period of Roman thought is the one supreme crisis in the evolu- 
tion of culture, the dividing line that marks the death of Medi- 
terranean, and the birth of Atlantic, ideals. Here the powers 
that sway the destiny of spirit are in council and the issue 
trembles in the balance. Over the drooping spirit of humanity 
the genius of Reason and Despair is in deadly struggle with the 
nascent genius of Faith and Hope, the Philosophy and Religion 
of Rome with the Religion of Christ. The old order dies, but, 
phoenix-like, out of its ashes, emerges the spirit of our race. Of 
him who, having eyes to see, has occupied this point of culture- 
historical vantage, it may be said as of the Homeric seer, 

<v O? rjhri rd t' iovra rd t' ecraofieva irpo t' eovra. 

Behi?id him the vista of Mediterranean civilization opens up, 
beginning in Egypt, passing into Western Asia, then into Greece, 
and ending in Rome. "As the streams," says Niebuhr, "lose 
themselves in the mightier ocean, so the history of the peoples 
once distributed along the Mediterranean shores, is absorbed in 
that of the mighty mistress of the world." Through Rome the 
broken threads of spiritual history are caught up and woven into 



48 ;' THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMANITIES 

the seamless woof of Aryan culture. When Carthage falls the 
Coptic and Aramaean threads are caught up. When Corinth was 
captured the sunset of Grecian culture fades into the dawn of 
Roman. So, too, Roman Art %nd Philosophy take up the torch 
of Beauty and Truth transmitted from the previous stage, and lead 
him inevitably to contemplate the continuous life of Mediterranean 
civilization. Before him opens the vista of Atlantic culture under 
the pole star of Christianity, and he beholds the old process of 
spiritual evolution repeat itself on a scale as much larger than 
that of Rome, or Athens, or Carthage, or Thebes, as the religion 
of Truth and Love is larger than the religion of Patriotism, or of 
Beauty, or of physical Light and Life. 

In conclusion, I may illustrate the practical application of 
my philosophy of the humanities to the actual organization of 
Latin studies in the college by instancing my own practice as 
outlined in the catalogue of the University of Texas ; cf. cata- 
logue for 1896-7, pp. 71-75. 

SCHOOL OF LATIN 
FOR UNDERGRADUATES. 

General Explanation. — The instruction offered presup- 
poses at least four years of substantial training in reading and 
writing Latin. 1 The undergraduate work is arranged in two par- 
allel series of courses, one in literature and one in language. The 
series in literature (A, B, C) presents in three successive courses 
the three successive stages in the evolution of Roman culture — 
the social-political, the artistic, and the philosophic or reflective 
stage. Thus the order of study is the order of historic unfold- 
ing. The series in language (A', B', C) accompanies and sup- 
plements the series in literature. As elective, either series may 
be taken and counted apart from the other, but as prescribed, 
credit is not given in the literary except in conjunction with the 
grammatical. The courses included under D are offered as com- 

1 Unanimously voted by the Superintendents and Principals of Texas at the meet- 
ing of the State Association on June 29, 1897. 



PEDAGOGIC ASPECT OF CULTURE EVOLUTION 49 

plementary reading to Courses A, B, and C, respectively, and 
Course D' forms an appropriate supplement to Courses A', B', 
C. Students are admitted to any course by which they are 
prepared to profit, but credit for back work implies formal exam- 
ination on the subjects involved. 

Course A — Literary: The Social -Political Stage. 

The aim of this course is to exhibit the elements of Roman 
civilization on its social and political side. It consists of con- 
nected readings in the Roman historians, supplemented by col- 
lateral studies in geography, religion, and mythology, and in the 
private and public life of the people. 

1 . Latin reading in Roman Legendary and Authentic History : 
Livy, Books i-ii, xxi-xxii ; Sallust, Jttgurthine War and Conspiracy 
of Catiline ; Tacitus, Germania. The attention of the student is 
fixed, through the sources, upon the order and process of Roman 
historical evolution. The readings follow the order of history, 
and are as extensive as the preparation of the class makes possi- 
ble. To students specializing in Latin, appropriate reading in 
Nepos and Cicero is recommended in connection with the authors 
read in class. The student is urged to keep the historical connec- 
tion and to bridge over any gap in the Latin sources by reading 
a connected account in some English classic, for example, the 
translation of Mommsen's History of Rome. 

2. Collateral reading in Classical Geography (e. g., Tozer), 
Roman Mythology (e.g., Gayley),and the Antiquities of Pri- 
vate and Public Life (e. g, Wilkins) ; for specialistic reference, 
Kiepert's Ancient Geography, Preller's Romische Mythologie, Mar- 
quardt-Mommsen's Handbuch der Romischen Alterthiimer or Ram- 
say's Ro?nan Antiquities. 

Course A' — Grammatical. 

1. Latin Grammar in general, with emphasis upon the funda- 
mental laws of the language. 

2. Exercises in Latin Prose Composition and in simple Latin 
conversation. 



50 THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMANITIES 

Course B — Literary : The Artistic Stage. 

The aim of this course is to exhibit the elements of Roman 
civilization on its aesthetic side. It consists, on the one hand, of 
readings from the Roman poets in historical sequence, accom- 
panied by the study of the Latin verse-forms, and, on the other, 
of an illustrated course in Roman art. 

1. Latin reading in Roman Poetry : The Drama, Plautus and 
Terence ; Lyric poetry, Catullus and Horace ; Epic poetry, Vergil. 
To those specializing in their Latin studies, additional reading is 
recommended in Elegiac poetry (Ovid, Tibullus, and Propertius), 
and a wider range in Epic poetry. The Metric forms of Latin 
poetry are taught practically in connection with the authors read 
in the class. 

2. An illustrated course in Roman Formative Art [e. g., Tar- 
bell and Goodyear) ; for specialistic reference, Reber's History 
of Ancient Art. A collection of photographs from the originals 
is used to illustrate this course. 

Course B ' — Grammatical. 

1. A systematic study of Latin Grammar, with emphasis upon 
the Syntax of the Noun. 

2. Exercises in Latin Prose Composition. 

Course C — Literary: The Reflective Stage. 

The aim of this course is to exhibit the elements of Roman 
civilization viewed from its philosophic or reflective side. The 
ethical schools of the Romans are studied in their relations to 
Greek philosophy on the one hand, and to Roman religion on 
the other. 

1. Latin reading in Roman Philosoph}^ : Electicism, Cicero 
( Weissenfels, Cicero's Philosophische Schriften) ; Epicureanism, 
Lucretius; Stoicism, Seneca. Wider reading, especially in 
Cicero, is recommended to students specializing in Latin or 
Philosophy. 

2. Collateral reading in the History of Philosophic Thought 
in antiquity, with special reference to the ethical schools of the 



PEDAGOGIC ASPECT OF CULTURE EVOLUTION 51 

Romans (e. g., Burt or Zeller's Outlines), supplemented by 
translations of Epictetus {e.g., Rolleston) and Marcus Aurelius 
(e. g., Zimmern) ; for special study, Zeller's History of Greek 
Philosophy . Papers are prepared by the individual members of 
the class and discussed on stated occasions. 

Course C — Grammatical. 

1. A systematic study of Latin Grammar, with emphasis 
upon the Syntax of the Verb. 

2. Exercises in Latin Prose Composition. 

Supplementary Courses. 

The object of these courses is to cover several important 
phases of humanistic study not represented in the particular cur- 
riculum offered above, and thus to provide also for those who 
desire to widen the range of their culture-historical and linguistic- 
logical studies. 

Course D — Literary. 

1. Latin reading in Roman History and Biography (Tacitus, 
Suetonius), or in Roman Rhetoric and Oratory (Cicero, Quin- 
tilian), or in Roman Satiric Poetry (Horace, Persius, Juvenal). 

2. Collateral reading in the History of Latin Literature (e. g., 
Mackail) ; for special purposes, Teuffel's History of Roman Lit- 
erature. 

Course D' — Historical Grammar. 

1. A general cultural course in the Science of Language, 
with special stress upon the Roman popular speech and its evo- 
lution into the Romanic idioms*. 

2. More advanced exercises in Latin Prose Composition and 
practice in Latin conversation. 

Reviewing now our general theory, let us be careful to avoid 
all mechanical and Procrustean applications. The letter killeth 
in matters of spirit. Practical considerations may suggest mod- 
ifications here and there, such as incidental violation of the his- 



52 THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMANITIES 

torical sequence of authors, the omission of particular features 
of the plan, and the substitution of others. Such exceptional 
details need only serve to place in bolder relief the develop- 
mental principle of spirit. Indeed, I would even approve a 
total rejection of the scheme, provided a truer one be proposed 
in its stead. The whole contention is for a rational, philosophic 
basis to humanistic pedagogy as against the traditional law of 
chaos. In this way we shall most surely succeed in resurrecting 
the buried spirit of the Humanities, for thus shall we breathe 
into them the life of spirit ; and the Philistines of the nine- 
teenth century will rage in vain about the fortress of the 
classics. Furthermore, experience has led me to avoid all 
specialistic or technical courses in the undergraduate humani- 
ties, as, for example, formal courses of lectures on the History 
of Latin Literature, Metric, Art, and the like, which belong 
more appropriately to graduate specialization, and presuppose a 
technical interest on the part of the student. The ideal of under- 
graduate instruction is rather an intimate spiritual exchange 
between pupil and teacher, which, indeed, admits of formal lec- 
turing only incidentally and for purposes of inspiration and 
rather demands mutual concentration upon a subject-matter 
ready to hand. 



ORGANIZATION OF THE LATIN HUMANITIES 



III. 

ORGANIZATION OF THE LATIN HUMANITIES IN 
SECONDARY EDUCATION. 



Delivered before the Texas State Association of Superintendents and Principals 
. in June of 1897. 



There are two imperishable functions of Latin studies in the 
education of youth : the one is culture-historical, the other lin- 
guistic-logical. The culture-historical function operates by 
humanizing and is essentially ethical, the linguistic-logical func- 
tion operates by disciplining the practical powers of the mind 
and is essentially intellectual and subsidiary to the high ethical 
aim of the humanities. The stress of preparatory instruction in 
any foreign or ancient civilization falls upon the linguistic side, 
since an adequate mastery of the language is prerequisite to the 
study of the literature and essential to full culture-historical 
insight and sympathy. But since the linguistic-logical form is 
indifferent to the content we may, from the very beginning of 
humanistic studies, wed the linguistic to the culture-historical 
interest by choosing for all linguistic exercises matter that will 
open up to the young mind the orderly vista of culture-histor- 
ical phenomena. In thus placing history above language, evo- 
lution above grammar, we do not belittle grammatical studies 
but bring them into their true relation to culture-historical disci- 
pline. We do not question that considered in itself grammar, 
in the full sense of the science of the sounds, inflections, word- 
formations, sentence-formations, and verse-forms of language, 
is the most immediately useful and practical of all disciplines 
and must inevitably grow more so as long as culture advances 
and language remains the medium of thought exchange. Let 
no teacher hesitate to say, "Young man or young woman, culti- 
vate grammatical studies, and your success anywhere within the 
borders of civilization will be doubly sure. Whatever you do, 

55 



56 THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMANITIES 

if practical success is your aim, perfect your mastery over the 
most perfect and indispensable tool of life : study grammar ; be 
an expert, full and rounded grammarian." So exalted an opin- 
ion must the thoughtful student hold of the practical value of 
linguistic-logical studies. But as there is one glory of the sun and 
another glory of the moon, so there is one glory of culture-history 
and another glory of grammar. Culture-history, or spiritual evo- 
lution, is the all illumining and vivifying.sun from whose fruitful 
lap language and all other human and spiritual creations have 
sprung and from which alone they derive significance and worth. 
Let us rest assured, then, that the health of grammatical studies 
will be best conserved by keeping them in warm touch with the 
life of culture-history. In all grammar-teaching let us remember 
that we are dealing with form and not with content and let us 
therefore see to it that the form is irradiated and glorified by 
the supreme worth of the thought it is made to embody. While 
we teach grammar let us also teach the highest and most fasci- 
natingly interesting of all lessons, the lesson of man's spiritual 
unfolding, remembering that this lesson begins with the first bio- 
graphical-historical exercise of the primary pupil. 

With grammar, then, as an instrument, and culture-history as 
the chief goal, let us now inquire what principles shall guide us 
in choosing the literature in which that culture-history is set 
forth and in vital connection with which all grammatical studies 
will best proceed. Our fundamental principle must of course 
be that the literature read shall conform to the law of unfolding 
of the individual spirit of the pupil, — first, the concrete and 
objective, next, the imaginative, and last, the philosophic or con- 
ceptual. This order of reading will necessarily coincide with 
the order of culture-history, because, as I have undertaken to 
show in a previous paper on the "Evolution of Culture," deliv- 
ered last December in San Antonio, the law of biology that the 
organic life of the individual repeats in miniature the organic 
life of the race applies also to the spiritual life of the individual 
and the spiritual life of the race. Hence if our Latin reading 
follow thus strictly the psychological development of the pupil, 



ORGANIZATION OF THE LATIN HUMANITIES 57 

we shall not fail to be true at the same time to the historical 
development of Roman civilization, for that civilization, like 
every other, must inevitably unfold itself first, in forms of 
objective, concrete spiritual activity, next, in forms of imag- 
inative spiritual activity, and, last, in forms of reflective or 
scientific activity. Hence the order of Latin reading in the 
rounded humanistic curriculum whether of high school or col- 
lege will be, first, objective, concrete historical narrative, next, 
poetry, and last, philosophy ; which latter topic, however, might 
in the nature of the case sometimes transcend the limits of the 
average high-school course. It is unnecessary for my present 
purpose further to elaborate these principles, more fully stated 
in a paper delivered last February in Austin on the "Pedagogic 
Aspect of Culture-Evolution" in which I endeavored to show 
the practical application of the San Antonio paper on the "Evo- 
lution of Culture." 

We are now prepared to formulate a general canon of reading 
for the four years' course in the high school. As soon as the 
elementary discipline of the Latin primer has rendered possible 
the reading of simple, connected discourse, Viri Romce will fur- 
nish a culture-historical course of Roman biography from Rom- 
ulus to Augustus. When the pupil is sufficiently drilled in this 
to take up Nepos with ready appreciation, we may begin on 
the series of Punic and Roman Lives, Hamilcar, Hannibal, 
Cato, and Atticus, introducing Caesar's Gallic War, that world- 
model of chaste and simple diction, between Cato and Atticus, 
and after a substantial drill in Caesar, breaking the inevitable 
monotony of the campaign by interpolating the remaining 
Roman Life of Nepos, Atticus, and concluding by reviving the 
scholastic recollection of that superb Latinist and gigantic per- 
sonality, Julius Caesar, By this time the average class may pos- 
sibly have reached the end of the third high-school year, and we 
shall have to begin the reading of poetry and the scansion of 
classic verse. The jEneid of Virgil may now be appropriately 
taken up, and the fourth year closed with Cicero. The Catiline 
Orations do not lend themselves aptly for this purpose, since 



58 THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMANITIES 

they are best introduced by Sallust's Conspiracy of Catiline, for 
which time would not suffice. None but the simplest of Cice- 
ro's orations prove satisfactory for the preparatory class, by 
reason of the inability of the pupil to enter into the technicali- 
ties of their subject-matter or to grasp broadly the political and 
social conditions that make them pointed and instructive. The 
De Senectute commends itself preferably as the final reading of 
the four-year course, because of its more beautiful form and 
content, and because it presents a typical aspect of Roman 
philosophy, thus enabling us to round off the high-school curri- 
culum in the full spirit of our culture-historical theory, which, as 
I have said, conceives all spiritual history as a progression from 
the objective and practical, through the imaginative and artistic, 
into the philosophic and reflective, and which, therefore, con- 
firms this order of reading as the true pedagogic procedure. 

And throughout the entire course the young pupil may be 
led to penetrate deeply into the current of historic life by col- 
lateral readings in standard modern authorities of history and 
fiction. The blending of the modern point of view, as pre- 
sented by some master-hand with the subject matter of the 
Roman writer, will furnish him a just historical perspective, and 
will lead him to discern with ever-increasing clearness the unity 
of historic life, and the sublime trend of all its struggles, fail- 
ures, and successes. 

No exact prescription can be effectually laid down as to the 
amount to be read in each author ; this must needs vary with 
class and instructor. Stress should be frequently laid both in 
preparatory work and in college entrance-examinations on sight 
translations in both directions, and, in general, on the free power 
of the pupil to command his resources and to apply them to 
original tasks. Such is inevitably the true test of preparation in 
any line, and such is the criterion applied by every thoughtful 
examiner, however precisely the scholastic catalogue may under- 
take for rough practical purposes to gauge quantitatively the 
entrance-requirement. The thoroughness of the work is every- 
thing ; the volume of it quite unimportant. A college catalogue 



ORGANIZATION OF THE LATIN HUMANITIES 59 

may require, for example, the four Punic and Roman Lives of 
Nepos, four books of Caesar, and four orations of Cicero, as an ade- 
quate amount of reading, done with average thoroughness, to pre- 
pare for the Freshman class. But every expert instructor knows 
that one of the Lives of Nepos, one book of Caesar, and one ora- 
tion of Cicero, may be done in such a way as to ensure a knowl- 
edge of the language and a standard of preparation quite equal 
to that of the quadruple amount done in the average fashion. 
Hence, the rigid enforcement of a quantitative requirement might 
sometimes imperil the thoroughness of the preparation. Let us 
always remember that thoroughness is the stinvmum bonum of 
scholastic life, and that quantitative requirements are entirely 
general and formal, having significance only where the time 
given to the study and the power of the instructor are known 
and constant factors. In Latin study, as in the physical world, 
the work done is always the product of the power and the time 
through which it acts ; mere space may often act as a serious 
weakener of concentration and throughness. 

Having established our literary canon for the Latin in the 
course of study for the high school, let us now pass to the con- 
sideration of the other aspect of the subject, the linguistic- 
logical or grammatical side of high-school Latin. The difficulty 
of the classic Latin as a formal mode of thought-expression 
springs out of its flexional character and its consequent freedom 
of word-order. While the English and all other languages of 
contemporary culture are almost flexionless, and hence compara- 
tively fixed in their word-order, Latin is richly flexional, and, 
therefore, comparatively free in its collocation of words. Here, 
then, we have at once our practical canon for language study in 
connection with Latin : first, the absolute and realizing mastery 
of the inflections ; and, second, the persistent and victorious 
enforcing of the mind in every sentence to lay hold upon and 
strictly follow out the Latin order of thought presentation. No 
surer and more rapid way to achieve these two fundamental 
results can be devised than the method of nature, speaking Latin 
and reading it aloud with persistent, conscious intellection — all 



60 THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMANITIES 

on the basis, of course, of the most careful reading and writing 
of the language by way of preparation for the final linguistic 
realization. Thus, too, practical precision in the sounding of 
vowels, diphthongs, and consonants, in the observance and dis- 
tinguishing of quantity, in the mastery of word-accent and 
thought-stress, as well as a realizing sense of the force of flex- 
ional forms and of their plastic adaptability through change in 
the word-order to the Protean mood of thought, will be most 
surely and rapidly acquired. 

Approaching now the narrower pedagogic task of grammat- 
ical instruction proper, our fundamental law of procedure follows 
at once from a consideration of the object of grammatical studies. 
That object is the practical and theoretical mastery of language. 
Hence our methodic principle of grammar teaching : let no rule 
be studied apart from its oral and written application. And 
in this connection it is always an advantage that the material for 
such illustration of grammatical truth be taken as largely as 
possible from the subject-matter of the literary course in con- 
nection with which the particular grammatical studies happen to 
fall ; for thus helpful concentration of study, illuminating 
inductive suggestion, and that stimulating zest of effort, which 
always springs from such intellectual integration, with the joyous 
sense of new life and new power attending it, are sure to ensue. 

It would be impossible within the limits of this paper to 
attempt a detailed application and illustration of the pedagogic 
principles outlined above, and, as will presently appear, the avail- 
able published literature of today renders such detail wholly 
unnecessary. 

We may sum up the educational sentiment of today with ref- 
erence to classical study in a few words. Grammatical instruc- 
tion should be rational and scientific, not descriptive and 
memoriter. Indeed, every memoriter exercise should involve a 
worthy thought-content and not consist in the devouring of 
detached vocabularies and phrases. The inductive process is a 
part of the pedagogic apparatus of all rational instruction in 
language, but it is not to be accentuated as an all-excluding fad. 



ORGANIZATION OF THE LATIN HUMANITIES 61 

The pedagogic center of gravity should lie in the reading of 
Latin and not in the independent grammatical exercise, which 
is mainly a pedagogic auxiliary, not an end in itself. The ele- 
mentary Latin reader should be of fascinating culture-historical 
content, legendary or historical, and not a medley of disjointed 
nothings. " Kein Sprachimterricht ohne Sachunterricht" is the vig- 
orous formula of the modern spirit. The reading of the Latin 
material should be pursued in a broad, humanistic spirit, and not 
as a mere grammatical gymnastics. And, finally, the elementary 
class should be introduced to all new subject-matter, whether 
literary or grammatical, by careful instruction in the class, 
preparatory to the final mastery at home and the subsequent 
recitation at school. 

In conclusion I have only to consider the duty of Texas edu- 
cators in view of and in relation to the educational ideals of our 
own country and to the best sentiment of the Old World. There 
are two educational treatises which are worth in themselves to 
the secondary teacher a pedagogical library and a lifetime of 
experience. These two small volumes voice the trend of modern 
theory and practice with reference to the practical details of 
Latin pedagogy, the one for Germany, the world's greatest 
nation of Latin scholars, the other for the United States. The 
first is entitled Lehrpldne und Lehraufgaben fur die hoheren Schiden 
?iebst Erlduterungen und Ausfuhrungsbestimmunge?i (Berlin, 1892, 
Bessersche Buchhandlung) ; the second, with which the Ameri- 
can teacher is most directly concerned, is the Report of the 
Latin Co?iference in No. 205 of the United States Bureau of 
Education (Washington Government Printing Office, 1893), the 
most important treatise on the practical pedagogy of secondary 
school studies that has ever appeared in the English language. 
The first of these valuable publications can be bought for 
seventy-five pfennigs, or something less than twenty cents ; the 
second can doubless be got for the asking. Let no teacher of 
any subject in the round of scholastic culture be without at least 
the American treatise. Both are rich in explicit directions upon 
every point of pedagogic interest. Fellow-teachers, we must 



62 THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMANITIES 

read, mark, learn, and inwardly digest such publications as these, 
for thus we shall not be left behind in the march of educational 
progress, and what is of great importance, we shall realize at 
once that our public high schools and all other secondary- 
schools in Texas must respect the report of the classical confer- 
ence and the strong protest of the American Philological Asso- 
ciation in the ' Report of the Committee of Twelve and offer at 
the least a four-years' course in Latin, with daily recitations of 
the maximum length possible under the curriculum and the 
teaching force. We shall learn, too, the arch-secret of those 
magicians in letters, the German scholars, when we come to 
realize the significance of their Sexta, with its eight full hours a 
week of Latin throughout the scholastic year ; their Quinta, with 
the same allotment ; their Quarta, with seven hours a week; 
their Untertertia, with seven ; their Obertertia, with seven ; their 
Untersecwida, with seven ; their Obersecunda, with seven ; their 
Unterprima, with six; and their Oberprima, with six — making 
the grand sum-total of sixty-two hours a week for one year, 
and that, too, the reformed program of 1892, and the "revolu- 
tionary" Emperor, with its reduction of fifteen hours as com- 
pared with the old schedule. And we shall learn finally the 
secret of American mendicancy, when we compare with such a 
nine-years' curriculum, with an average of seven hours a week of 
Latin throughout, its American counterpart, our high school and 
college curriculum combined, of about eight years' length, with 
five recitations a week in Latin of forty-five minutes each in the 
high school, and three recitations a week of an hour each in 
college, making the puny sum-total of twenty-seven hours a 
week in Latin for one year — all of which means that the Ger- 
man Latinist at the end of the gymnasium is, roughly speaking, 
f-f- times better than the American Latinist at the end of the 
college, or about 2*^ times as scholarly, and that, too, without 
taking into account the expert thoroughness of the instruction 
furnished by the German gymnasium and the equally advan- 
tageous fact that Latin is taken up in Germany immediately 
after the three years' Vorschule upon entrance into the gym- 



ORGANIZATION OF THE LATIN HUMANITIES 63 

nasium, whereas in America it is usually begun about five years 
later upon entrance into the high school. 

It is a pitiable commentary on American scholastic humbug- 
gery when we observe that with our pretentious parade of twelve 
years of public school and four years of bogus university we can 
find time for but four years of Latin in the high school, and those 
puny years of five recitations a week and forty-five-minute peri- 
ods, and four years in the college, and those still punier years of 
three recitations a week and sixty-minute periods, while the 
Germans, who do not encourage bogus universities and make no 
parade of high-school and college "diplomas," and whose max- 
imum provision for primary, secondary, and tertiary educational 
processes appears in a three years' Vorschide and a nine years' 
gymnasium, require of every gymnasium pupil before he can 
receive his certificate of "dismissal" about three times the 
amount of all the Latin that our college graduate could possibly 
have had, even though "his fondness for the subject" led him 
to "elect" Latin at every possible opportunity. Our duty then 
is plain : we must at least bring our Texas schools in line with 
American ideals as embodied in the report of the Classical Con- 
ference of the National Educational Association, and we must all 
move forward in the light of the Old World's best experience as 
expressed in the report of the German Commissioner, and no 
longer rest vulgarly content with our ignominious inferiority. 
I have aimed in this paper to take our bearings and to determine 
our immediate course with reference to "Latin in the Course of 
Study for the High School." 



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